Thursday, October 1, 2015

The Reasons Behind Ingredients

There are many ingredients that have special functions in the baking and cooking process. Some functions are critical to the success of the finished product. Some of these ingredients can be substituted with other ingredients and produce the same outcome but many times substitutions will have some affect on the end product. See Food Substitutions for a list of substitutions that can be used when the original ingredients are not available.
Dry Ingredients
Dry Ingredients
Food ItemIngredient Function
Baking PowderA combination of baking soda, an acid and a moisture absorber, which together form a leavening agent. Just the right amount of acid is added to the baking soda so that when the baking powder is added to moist ingredients, there is a reaction that releases carbon dioxide bubbles. This reaction is what makes the batter or dough rise.
Baking SodaAn ingredient used as a leavening agent. When it is mixed with an acidic ingredient and then comes in contact with liquid ingredients, a chemical reaction occurs. The chemical reaction releases carbon dioxide gas and causes the rising action in dough or batter. Some of the acidic ingredients that cause the reaction with baking soda are vinegar, lemon juice, orange juice, buttermilk, sour milk, sour cream, honey, chocolate and molasses. The chemical reaction begins as soon as the liquid is added, so the dough or batter should be baked as soon as possible after it has been mixed. If too much time passes before baking, the gases can escape and the product will not rise properly when baked.
BranBran is the outer layer of a kernel of grain. Bran is added to cereals and baked goods to increase the nutritional value and to add fiber.
Bread-
crumbs
Breadcrumbs are used to add texture and body to foods. They are added in with other ingredients or they can be used as a coating for meats, fish and vegetables. Breadcrumbs are used fresh or dried, and are used in different degrees of coarseness. Fresh breadcrumbs are handmade. Dried breadcrumbs can be made by hand but are also sold in food stores already dried and prepackaged.
Brown SugarGranulated sugar that has molasses syrup added to it. The molasses syrup softens the texture of the sugar. Brown sugar is available in a light and dark variety. The darker has a more intense flavor. Use light brown sugar unless dark brown is specifically specified in the recipe.
Canning & Pickling SaltA fine-grained salt that does not contain any additives, which prevents the brine from becoming cloudy when canning and pickling food. It is used when canning and pickling vegetables and meats. It can also be used in the same manner as table salt but it may start to clump when exposed to excessive humidity.
Cocoa PowderAn unsweetened powder made from the leftover chocolate liquor that has had the cocoa butter removed. The chocolate liquor is made from cacao beans and about 75% of it is extracted as cocoa butter and the remainder is dried and ground into cocoa powder. Cocoa powder is used to add chocolate flavoring to baked goods.
Corn
Meal/Flour
Made from ground dried corn. It is available coarse, medium or fine ground. Corn flour is ground finer than fine ground corn meal. Corn meal or flour will not form gluten so products made from them have a more coarse, dense texture than products made from some of the other flours. Corn meal and corn flour provide a corn flavor to products it is used in.
CornstarchA thickening agent used in sauces, gravies, soups and desserts. It is finely ground from the heart of the corn kernel and has twice the thickening power of flour.
Cream of TartarA white powder made from the acid deposits that form on the inside of the wine barrels during wine making. It is added to egg whites to give them more volume and stability. It also helps to stop sugar syrups from crystallizing and makes creamier frostings and candies when it is one of their ingredients. This acidic powder is also added to baking soda to create commercial baking powder.
Flour
Generally, flour is the ingredient that gives baked goods their form and structure. When the flour is mixed with water, the proteins in flour interact with each other to form gluten. Gluten is what gives the dough its elasticity and the ability to stretch as the leavening agent produces the carbon dioxide gases that cause the dough to rise.
Different types of wheat flour contain different amounts of proteins for forming gluten. Soft wheat have a lower protein content than hard wheat. A flour with higher protein content is more desirable for yeast breads, whereas lower protein content is better for cakes, pastries, and quick breads to produce a more tender texture.
Flour -
All-Purpose
All-purpose flour is a multipurpose flour made from hard and soft wheat. It can be used for all baking purposes. It is available bleached and unbleached.
Flour -
Arrowroot
Arrowroot flour is a fine powder ground from the arrowroot plant. It does not have any flavor and its texture is similar to cornstarch. It is used as a thickener for sauces, gravies, puddings and dessert fillings. Arrowroot flour has approximately 50% more thickening power than flour.
Flour - BreadBread flour is a hard wheat flour that is higher in gluten forming protein. It is used with yeast breads because the higher gluten content produces bread that is lighter, has more volume and is less crumbly.
Flour - CakeCake flour is a soft-wheat flour with a fine-texture and a high starch content. It contains a lower level of protein than bread flour. When mixed with moisture, the protein in flour turns to gluten that gives the baked goods strength and structure. Pastries and cakes need only a limited amount of gluten. Since the pastry flour contains less protein it creates tender pastries and cakes. Cake flour is also referred to as pastry flour.
Flour - OatOat flour is ground from rolled oats. It provides a nutlike flavor and has a high protein content. Oat flour does not form gluten like the wheat flour, so it must be used in combination with a wheat flour so that the bread will rise. When using oat flour, about 1/3 of the flour can be oat flour and 2/3 should be wheat flour.
Flour - PastryPastry flour is a soft-wheat flour with a fine-texture and a high starch content. It contains a lower level of protein than bread flour. When mixed with moisture, the protein in flour turns to gluten that gives the baked goods strength and structure. Pastries and cakes need only a limited amount of gluten. Since the pastry flour contains less protein it creates tender pastries and cakes. The higher level of protein found in bread flour is required to create the structure of the bread crumb. Pastry flour is also referred to as cake flour.
Flour - Potato StarchPotato starch flour is a non-gluten forming flour that is ground from dried, cooked potatoes. It is a fine textured flour that has a mild potato flavor. Potato starch flour must be used in combination with a gluten forming flour, such as a all-purpose flour.
Flour - RiceRice flour is a flour made from finely ground long or short grain rice. It is used as a thickening agent to thicken puddings, desserts, and sauces. It is also used to make noodles. It does not form gluten, so it can be substituted for wheat flour in some recipes to be used by people that do not tolerate gluten.
Flour - RyeRye flour is ground from grains of rye grass and has a slightly sweet-sour flavor. It does not contain enough protein to develop the gluten necessary for the bread to rise sufficiently, so it must be combined with wheat flour. Rye flour produces a denser and darker loaf of bread and is available in light, medium and dark varieties. The darker the flour the darker the loaf of bread will be. When using light rye flour in combination with wheat flour, you can use about 40% rye flour. When using the medium or dark rye flour, the amount of rye flour must be decreased.
Flour -
Self-rising
Self-rising flour is an all-purpose flour into which baking powder (a leavening agent) and salt have been added. When used in a recipe in place of all-purpose flour, the baking powder and salt are omitted from the other ingredients.
Flour - SemolinaSemolina flour is ground from hard durum winter wheat. Semolina flour produces stronger dough because it contains a high level of gluten, which adds elasticity to the dough. Dough made from semolina flour is too hard to handle when rolling out by hand because of its stickiness but when mixed with unbleached white flour it produces a strong dough that is easier to handle. Semolina flour is used when making pasta and some breads.
Flour - SoySoy flour is flour ground from hulled and roasted soybeans. Soy flour cannot form gluten and contains no starch, but it is very high in protein. It is generally used to increase the protein in baked goods but you must be cautious as to how much you use because it will affect the taste and cause increased browning if too much is used. The flour is produced as natural (defatted), which has the oils removed, or full-fat, which retains the soybean oils.
Flour -
Triticale
Triticale flour is ground from the man-made grain triticale. Triticale is a high protein man-made grain produced by crossbreeding wheat and rye. The man-made grain was produce in effort to duplicate the protein and bread-making qualities of wheat and the durability and high lysine content of rye. Triticale flour provides a nutty flavor similar to wheat and rye, and generally contains more protein than wheat flour. Because of its durability, it handles better than rye flour but not as well as wheat flour. It can be substituted in equal portions for recipes requiring either wheat or rye. Yeast dough made with triticale flour should be fermented for less time than dough made with wheat flour.
Flour -
Whole Wheat
Whole wheat four is ground from the full wheat kernel, including the bran, germ, and the endosperm. Whole wheat flour is brownish in color and is much more nutritious than refined white flour. It is often added to white flour to improve the nutrition of baked goods. Whole wheat flour is available in fine, medium and coarse ground. As the coarseness of the flour increases, the coarseness of the baked good's texture increases. Due to the higher unsaturated oil content in whole wheat flour, it has a shorter shelf life. Food products made with whole wheat flour have a higher potential of becoming rancid if kept for long periods of time. The life of the food product can be extended if stored in the refrigerator. If substituting whole wheat flour for part of the white flour when making yeast and quick breads, each cup of white flour that you replace should be replace by 1 cup plus 2 tablespoons of whole wheat flour. Bread made with whole wheat flour will produce a smaller, denser loaf.
Granulated SugarFine or extra-fine sugar crystals made from refined beet or cane sugar. It serves several purpose in baking. It provides sweetness, adds tenderness, and helps in the browning of baked goods. When added to yeast dough, it helps the yeast begin producing the gas for the dough to rise and helps to retain the moisture in the bread. It is also referred to as white sugar.
HerbsHerbs are plants that have fragrant leaves and stems that are used to season foods. Herbs can be used fresh or dried, but the quantity you should use in a recipe may vary greatly depending on which type is used. Be sure to read the recipe carefully to see if different quantities are indicated for dried versus fresh. There are many different types of herbs, but some that are commonly available are: angelica, basil, bay leaves, burnet, chives, chervil, cilantro/coriander, dill, fennel, garlic, hyssop, lavender, lemon balm, lemon grass, lemon verbena, marjoram, mint, oregano, parsley, pepper, rosemary, sage, savory, sorrel, tarragon, thyme, watercress, and wintergreen.
Kosher SaltA coarse grained salt that does not contain any additives. It is preferred for its texture and flavor. Because it is coarser grained, it takes up more space when measuring. When using it in place of regular salt, you will need to increase the amount called for in the recipe. Add an additional 1/8 tsp. of kosher salt when the recipe calls for 1 tsp. of salt.
OatmealA cereal ground from hulled and cleaned oats. It can be cooked to eat as a breakfast cereal or it can be used as an ingredient for baking. Oatmeal is available as old fashioned rolled oats, which are larger flakes that take approximately 15 minutes to cook or as quick-cooking oats, which are smaller cut flakes that take approximately 5 minutes to cook. Both types can be interchanged when baking. It is also available as an instant oatmeal, which is oatmeal that is made up of very small cut flakes that are precooked and dried. They require minimal cooking but are not recommended for use in baking.
Pearl SugarLarge, smoothly polished crystals of sugar, which are used for decorating purposes.
PepperA savory spice that has been ground from peppercorns. Pepper is available as whole peppercorns that can be freshly ground and can also be purchased cracked or in ground form.
Powdered SugarGranulated sugar that has been finely ground into a powder. It is used to make creamy frostings and to add a decorative coating to baked goods. Cornstarch is sometimes added to the powdered sugar to prevent it from absorbing moisture and forming clumps. Also referred to as confectioner's sugar.
SaltSalt is a seasoning that sharpens the flavor of other ingredients. If the amount of salt called for in a receipe is reduced, other seasonings should be increased to compensate for the flavor loss. Salt will also enhance the sweetness of a food. The salt in yeast dough slows the fermentation of the yeast, so reducing the amount of salt used will affect the finished product. The loaves of bread that will rise to quickly, which will affect the flavor and shape of the loaves.
Salt SubstituteGenerally a salt substitute consists of potassium chloride. It is bitter in taste but provides for a lower sodium intake. It should not be used in baking. There are also salt substitute mixtures available which consists of a mix of potassium chloride and sodium chloride. The mixture provides for a lower sodium intake but its taste is similar to regular salt.
Sea SaltSea salt is produced through the evaporation of sea water. It is available in fine and coarse grained crystals. It is preferred for its fresh, distinctive taste, which will vary depending on the location it is from.
SpicesSpices are taken from a variety of plants. Spices are found in the stems, roots, buds, bark, seeds, and fruit of plants. They have strong aromas and strong flavors that are used to add flavor to baked and cooked foods. Most spices are available in both whole and ground form. Ground spices will lose their potency faster than whole spices. Some of the spices you will find are allspice, aniseeds, caraway, cayenne pepper, chili powder, cinnamon, cloves, coriander seeds, cumin, curry powder, fennel seeds, ginger, juniper berries, mace, nutmeg, paprika, pepper, peppercorns, saffron, Sichuan pepper, star anise, sumac, and turmeric.
Superfine SugarGranulated sugar that has been ground into extra-fine granules. Superfine sugar melts easily in liquid and works well in most baking recipes.
Table SaltA fine-grained salt that contains additives that prevent caking, which allows the salt to flow freely. It is also available with iodine added. Table salt is used as an "at the table" seasoning that is added to food when it is eaten at a meal but is also used as an ingredient when baking and cooking. It should not be used in canning and pickling because the additives in it can cause the water to turn cloudy and pickles to darken in color.
Unflavored GelatinUnflavored gelatin is made from the collagen protein found in the bone, skin, and cartilage of animals. It is added to sweet and savory foods to cause the liquid in the dishes to jell, which thickens or gives shape to the dish. One tablespoon of gelatin is generally enough to jell two cups of liquid.
Wheat GermRefers to the embryo of the wheat kernel, which is removed for the production of refined white flour, but remains as part of whole-wheat flour. The wheat germ is a good source of protein, vitamins, and minerals. It is used to add fiber and flavor, and can be substituted for up to 1/3 of the flour called for in a recipe.
YeastTiny microorganisms that grow and multiply when activated by the addition of warm water. As the microorganisms increase in size and number, they give off carbon dioxide, which causes the dough to rise and produce a light and airy loaf of bread. The addition or removal of other ingredients, such as sugar and salt, affect the action of the yeast, and if less yeast is used than called for, it will increase the amount of time it takes the dough to reach the proper volume. There are three types of yeast available, which include active dry yeast sold in granule form; compressed fresh yeast sold in cake form, which is found in the refrigerator section of a food store; and quick-rising yeast, which decreases the rising time by approximately 1/3 in comparison to active dry yeast.
Solid Ingredients
Solid Ingredients
Food ItemIngredient Function
Almond PasteA paste made from blanched almonds, sugar and glycerine. The paste is used as a flavoring agent for pastries. Almond extract is sometimes added to the paste to bring out the almond flavor. The paste is also used for decorating baked goods. Almond paste is similar to marzipan but they are not interchangeable in recipes.
Baking or Bitter ChocolateUnsweetened chocolate that contains no other ingredients other than chocolate liqueur and 50 to 58% cocoa butter. Do not substitute any of the sweetened chocolates in a recipe calling for unsweetened chocolate.
CaramelSugar that has been slowly heated until it melts and becomes slightly burned. Once the sugar has melted, it takes on varying degrees of color and develops a distinct flavor. If it is cooked too long it will become bitter and quite dark in color. It is used in candies, desserts and savory dishes to add color and flavor.
Caramel CandiesCandies made form butter, sugar and cream. They are generally sold as small square candies that are individually wrapped. These squares are melted and used as a filling or topping for desserts or baked goods. They are also melted and used to coat apples to make caramel apples.
ChocolateCocoa beans are ground and then processed to separate the cocoa butter from the chocolate liqueur. The chocolate liqueur is then further processed and mix with other ingredients to create different varieties of chocolate. Some of the different varieties are dark chocolate, milk chocolate, white chocolate, unsweetened, bittersweet, and semi-sweet chocolate.
Chocolate ChipsChocolate chips are small round droplets of chocolate. They are available in semisweet, bittersweet, milk, mint and white chocolate. You will also find them in mini, standard and large sizes. Chocolate chips will hold their shape when melted unless they are stirred together. They are popular to use in cookies, bars, muffins, and quick breads because when heated they will hold their shape. They add texture and bursts of flavor without being overbearing.
Cream CheeseA smooth white cheese that is made from cream and milk. Cream cheese is a fresh cheese so it does not keep for a long period of time. It has a sweet tangy flavor, and is available in several varieties: regular, which contains about 33% milkfat; light, which is softer and contains less calories and fat than regular; nonfat, which is made from skim milk and contains no fat; and whipped, which is regular cream cheese that has been whipped to make it fluffy and easier to spread. It is also available in several flavors. Cream cheese is used as a spread but is also used to make dips, desserts and frostings.
Dark ChocolateDark chocolate includes sweet, semisweet and bittersweet chocolate. They are made up of chocolate liqueur, sugar and vanilla. Bittersweet contains more chocolate liqueur than sweet and semisweet chocolate. Generally the different varieties can be interchanged in recipes with little affect on the finished product.
Flavored ChipsBaking chips that are shaped the same as chocolate chips but are different flavors. They are available in a variety of flavors such as vanilla, cherry, peanut butter, and butterscotch. They can be used in the same manner as chocolate chips to add texture and flavor to baked goods.
FruitsThere are many different types of fruit that are used in baking and cooking, such as apples, bananas, oranges, lemons, limes, pineapple, strawberries, peaches, pears, apricots, and berries. They are used fresh, cooked, and dried. Check the recipe for the type of fruit needed and how it needs to be prepared.
Milk ChocolateChocolate that is enriched with milk powder. It contains less chocolate liqueur and is lighter in color than any of the dark chocolates.
RaisinsRaisins are dried grapes, which can be eaten plain or used as an ingredient in both sweet and savory dishes. They are available in two varieties, dark and golden. The dark raisin is dark in color, has a drier, more shriveled texture, and has a sweet flavor. The golden raisin is a light golden color, is more moist and plump, and has a sweet, tangy flavor. Raisins add flavor and texture to salads, baked goods, and cooked dishes.
Sour Cream
Sour cream is a dairy product produced from sweet pasteurized cream. It has a thick consistency and a flavor that is slightly tangy. It is fairly acidic, which activates the leavening action of baking soda. It is used as a topping and for making dips. It is also used as an ingredient in both sweet and savory dishes. Sour cream is also available in low-fat and nonfat varieties.
VegetablesThere are many different types of vegetables that can be used when cooking, such as potatoes, beans, peas, carrots, corn, onions, broccoli, cauliflower, and many more. They are used fresh, cooked, and dried. Check the recipe for the type of vegetables needed and to see how they need to be prepared. Vegetables are used on their own to create a vegetable dish or with other ingredients to create a one-dish meal.
White ChocolateWhite chocolate is not actually a true chocolate because it does not contain any chocolate liqueur. It contains pure cocoa butter, sugar, milk solids, lecithin, and vanilla. It is can be eaten on its own or it can be used in cookies, cakes, bars, and desserts. It is also used as a coating on snacks, such as pretzels and nuts.
Liquid Ingredients
Liquid Ingredients
Food ItemIngredient Function
ButtermilkTraditionally buttermilk was the liquid that was left after whole milk has been churned into butter, but today commercial buttermilk is produced by adding lactic-acid bacteria to low-fat or nonfat milk. Buttermilk has a thick consistency and adds a tangy flavor to baked goods, sauces, and dressings. It can be used in many recipes to replace yogurt and sour milk. Buttermilk is also available in powdered form.
Corn SyrupA thick, sweet syrup extracted from corn. It is available in a light and dark variety. The light syrup is clear in color and sweet but does not have much flavor. The dark syrup is brown in color and has a sweet molasses or caramel-like flavor. Corn syrup works well in frostings, candies and jams because it hinders crystallization. It produces a denser, chewier dough when used in baked goods. Corn syrup can also be used in place of honey or maple syrup but it is not as sweet so it may have a slight affect on the finished product.
EggsEggs can be cooked and eaten as a food themselves but they also serve several purposes as an ingredient. They give cooked dishes and baked goods structure. They also add flavor, color, liquid, protein, and fat. The egg yolks add to the tenderness and provide consistent flavor and texture to the product. Egg whites add volume to the recipe. Two egg whites can be substituted for one whole egg if concerned about cholesterol. Grade A large eggs are the best size to use for most recipes calling for eggs.
Evaporated MilkWhole, low-fat, or nonfat milk that has had approximately 60% of the water removed. It has been heat-treated to sterilize it in the can. This allows the milk to be stored at room temperature. Evaporated milk is used undiluted in sauces, soups and custards to give them a rich creamy texture. It is also used in baked goods and other dishes. Do not interchange with sweetened condensed milk, which is very sweet and sticky. Evaporated milk can also be reconstituted by adding water and it can then be added to recipes calling for milk.
ExtractsExtracts are produced by extracting the oils from fruits, nuts, and plants and then dissolving the in an alcohol base. Extracts are used to add flavoring to baked goods, candies, desserts, sweet fillings, and frostings. There are imitation flavorings also available that are used in the same manner as extracts but to provide the best flavor to your foods use pure extracts. Some of the common extracts available are vanilla, almond, maple, anise, lemon, orange, and peppermint.
Food ColoringA coloring solution used to add color to foods. Food coloring is generally added to frostings or batters for decorating purposes but can also be added to other foods to enhance their color. Food coloring adds color but does not affect flavor. It is generally available in the primary colors and they can be mixed to create additional colors. Start with a small amount and add more to darken to the desired color. Food coloring is also available in a paste form.
Half & HalfA commercially produced product that consists of half milk and half light cream. It is used on cereal, as a coffee creamer and as an ingredient in many recipes.
Heavy CreamA dairy product that has a butterfat content of at least 36%. It is also known as whipping cream and double cream. Heavy cream provides a rich, creamy texture to the foods it is added to. It is used in sweet and savory sauces, baked goods, desserts and dessert toppings. It is also used as an ingredient in cocktail drinks.
HoneyHoney is the nectar from flowers and other plants that is collected by bees. Honey is used as a sweetener and has a distinctive flavor that is influenced by the type of flowers and plants that the nectar is taken from. A product containing honey is likely to be fairly moist because it contains fructose, which absorbs moisture from the air around it. When using honey in a recipe in place of sugar, use 3/4 cup plus 1 tablespoon of honey per cup of sugar being replace. The liquid in the recipe should also be decreased by 2 tablespoons to help offset the additional moisture that will be created by the honey. If too much honey is used in a recipe, excessive browning may occur. Honey is also used as a spread similar to jam or jelly. It is available in three basic forms — liquid honey (liquid containing none of the comb), chunk-style honey (liquid with pieces of the comb), and comb honey (a square or round piece of the honeycomb containing the honey inside).
JuicesJuices are liquids extracted from food items that are used to make beverages and sauces. The fruit juices are also used as liquid ingredients in recipes for some baked goods. Fruit juices are acidic, so when combined with baking soda in a recipe, they cause the chemical reaction that results in the baking soda acting as a leavening agent.
Light CreamA dairy product containing 18 to 30% milkfat, also referred to as table cream. It is used in making soups, sauces, desserts and baked goods. When used in place of heavy cream, the foods texture will not be as creamy. Light cream will separate or curdle easier than heavy cream so when using in soups and sauces, use a lower heat, heat slowly, and do not let it boil.
Low-fat MilkMilk that has had most of the fat removed. It is available in varieties containing 1% or 2% milkfat. It can be used in recipes as a substitution for whole milk or fat-free milk.
MilkWhen called for in a recipe it is referring to cow's milk. It is available as whole milk, low-fat milk, and skim (fat-free) milk. Also available powdered and condensed. Most often they are interchangeable in a recipe. The milk adds nutrition and browning capabilities. When heating milk, heat slowly and watch carefully to prevent it from scorching.
MolassesA thick, strong flavored syrup, produced as a byproduct of sugar refining. Molasses is used as a sweetener but is not as sweet as sugar. It is available in three varieties: light, which is from the first boiling and the sweetest of the three; dark, which is from the second boiling and is a little less sweet but has a deeper flavor; and blackstrap, which is from the third boiling and is very dark in color with a bitter flavor. Blackstrap is rarely used in baking. Light and dark molasses are interchangeable in recipes, resulting in the finished product having a slightly deeper flavor when the dark molasses is used.
Skim Milk
A fat-free variety of milk that contains no more than .5% of milkfat. Skim milk can be interchanged with low-fat or whole milk in a recipe without a noticeable difference in the end product. Depending on the amount of milk called for in the recipe, you may notice slightly less flavor and richness when skim milk is substituted whole milk.
Soy MilkA milk substitute made from pressed, cooked soybeans. Plain soy milk can be used in place of cow's milk in puddings, sauces and soups. Using soy milk in place of cow's milk will affect the taste of the end product. You may want to start by only replacing half of the cow's milk with soy milk. In addition to plain soy milk, there are flavored varieties, and low-fat, fat-free, and fortified versions. Soy milk is high in protein, low in saturated fats, and cholesterol free. People who are lactose intolerant can use soy milk as a replacement for milk in some of their recipes. Soy milk has a tendency to curdle so you have to be careful when adding to acidic foods.
Sweetened Condensed MilkWhole milk that has had 60% of the water removed and then sugar added. The amount of sugar added makes up 40% of the sweetened condensed milk's volume. It is very sweet and sticky, and adds a richness to the foods it is added to. It is used to make candies, bars, pies, and puddings. Sweetened condensed milk turns a golden color and takes on a caramel like flavor when heated. It also thickens as it is heated. Sweetened condensed milk cannot be used as a substitution for other milk product.
VanillaSee "Extracts" above.
VinegarAn acidic solution resulting from allowing wine or an alcoholic liquid to ferment a second time. Vinegar adds a sour, pungent taste to the foods it is added to. It has a tendency to lose its pungency when heated so if you desire a stronger flavor from the vinegar when adding it to a heated dish, you should add it after the dish is removed from the heat. The two most common types of vinegar are apple cider vinegar, which has a tart fruity flavor and distilled white vinegar, which has a more pungent flavor that is too harsh for regular cooking. Apple cider vinegar is most often used in recipes for foods such as salads, dressings, sauces, marinades and condiments. The distilled white is used most often for pickling and cleaning purposes. Other varieties include balsamic vinegar, malt vinegar, wine vinegar, and rice vinegar.
Vinegar-BalsamicA vinegar made from sweet, white Trebbiano grapes. Traditional balsamic vinegar is aged for at least 12 years and is very expensive. Most commercially manufactured balsamic vinegar are aged for a shorter period of time. They are aged in stainless steel tanks for 6 months to a year and in wooden barrels for 2 to 12 years. It adds a sweet-sour taste to the foods it is added to and it has a dark color. It can be used for salad dressings, sauces, marinades and gravies.
Vinegar-MaltMalt vinegar is made from the fermentation of malt liquor. It has a natural caramel color but is sometimes distilled to make it clear. It has a strong distinctive taste and is popular to use for pickling and sprinkled on fish and chips.
Vinegar-RiceVinegar made from fermented rice wine. It has a clean, mild flavor that is slightly sweet, which goes well with herbs, spices and fruits. Rice vinegar is light in color, which helps maintain the color of the ingredients it is added to. It can be sprinkled on salads, fruits, vegetables and stir fry dishes to give them a spark of flavor. It is popular in Japanese and Chinese dishes.
Vinegar-WineVinegar made from fermented red or white wine. Red wine vinegar is dark red in color and has a sharp flavor. White wine vinegar is clear or has a very light gold tint to it. It is acidic in flavor. They are used to add a spark of flavor to fruits, salad dressings, marinades, sauces, and glazes.
Fats
Fat Ingredients
Food ItemIngredient Function
ButterThe semi-solid product that is produce from churning cream. It is at least 80% milkfat and is available in salted or unsalted varieties. The unsalted variety is often used when cooking because it allows the cook to have more control over the seasoning. Butter creates flaky pastries, and it provides flavor, tenderness, crispness, and a golden-brown color to many foods. When used in cookies it will cause them to spread less than if margarine is used and will give the cookies a lighter texture and richer flavor. It is used when frying and sautéing food, as a spread for baked goods such as breads and rolls, and as a flavoring for cooked vegetables. When eaten, it does not leave a greasy feeling in your mouth because it melts at body temperature. It is an ingredient in hundreds of recipes including breads, pastries, cakes, entrees, and sauces.
Lard
Lard is pork fat that has been rendered. In rendering, the fat is heated, causing the connective tissues to brown and turn crispy. They are then strained from the fat to purify the lard. Lard provides a slightly nutty flavor and because of its richness, it creates very tender, flaky pastries and pie crusts. It can be used in place of butter in baking recipes, but the amount should be reduced by approximately 25 percent.
MargarineMargarine is made from partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, water, milk solids, salt and generally coloring. It is similar to butter in appearance and texture. Its flavor is also similar to butter but is not as rich. In addition to regular margarine (containing 80% fat), it is available in several other varieties, such as reduced fat (containing 60% fat), low-fat (containing 40% or less fat), and fat-free (containing less than half a gram of fat). It can be used in most recipes in place of butter but there will be a slight loss of flavor. When used for making cookies, the margarine will have a tendency to spread more than butter, resulting in a more flattened cookie. For best results when substituting margarine, use regular margarine and not one of the reduced fat varieties. Margarine will create a softer dough but butter should be used when making pastries to provide the most flakiness.
OilOils are extracted from seeds and fruits such as corn, cottonseed, soybean, sesame, sunflower, safflower, olive, and avocado. Some oils are extracted from nuts such as peanut, walnut, almond, and hazelnut. Oils are used to fry and sauté foods, for making salad dressings, and as an ingredient in baking. Some of the common oils used for these purposes are vegetable oil, corn oil, canola oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, and peanut oil. Oil is used in recipes for breads, cakes, cookies and muffins. Oil can be used in place of butter or margarine in most recipes by using 7/8 cup of oil for each cup of butter or margarine that is called for. Substituting the oil will result in the finished product having a heavier texture. Because oil has a higher smoke point than butter or margarine, it works better for sautéing, frying, deep-frying and stir-frying.
Reduced
Fat Substitutes
There are a variety of alternate ingredients that can be used instead of oil or butter to reduce the fat content when cooking or baking. Substitute products exist with reduced fat and no fat and in different forms such as sprays, spreads and liquids. Fruit purees or applesauce can be used as oil substitutes for baking purposes. When using reduced fat or fat- free substitutes, be cautious as to when and how they are used. Some recipes require a certain amount of fat to be successful. Reduced fat substitutes work well as a spread on breads and rolls, or as a topping for potatoes, pasta or vegetables, but they do not work well as a cooking oil or as an ingredient for baking.
ShorteningShortening is vegetable oil that has been solidified by a process called hydrogenation. It remains a solid at room temperature and similar to lard, it creates a flakiness in pastries and pie crusts. In some recipes for baked goods, the shortening is creamed together with the sugar. Creaming them together traps air in the batter and creates a lighter finished product. Shortening has a high smoke point so it also works well for sautéing, frying, deep-frying and stir-frying.

Friday, September 25, 2015

Delete this later

https://www.reddit.com/r/YouShouldKnow/comments/3mcmdp/ysk_about_these_useful_websites/

Tuesday, September 15, 2015

Friday, August 28, 2015

Understanding and Beating the Barbecue Stall, Bane of All Barbecuers, and How it Helps Create "Bark"

"WTF is going on? My wife is going to kill me! Help me Meathead!!!!" Anonymous reader
The Stall. The Zone. The Plateau. It has many names and it has freaked out many a backyard pitmaster. I know because they email me right in the middle of their cook. Panicky.


You get a big hunk-o-meat, like a pork shoulder or a beef brisket, two of the best meats for low and slow smoke roasting, and you put it on the smoker with dreams of succulent meat dancing in your head. You insert your fancy new digital thermometer probe, stabilize the cooker at about 225°F and go cut the lawn. Then you take a nap.
The temp rises steadily for a couple of hours and then, to your chagrin, it stops. It sticks. It stalls for four or more hours and barely rises a notch. Sometimes it even drops a few degrees. You check the batteries in your meat thermometer. You tap on the smoker thermometer like Jack Lemon in the China Syndrome. Meanwhile the guests are arriving, and the meat is nowhere near the 203°F mark at which it is most tender and luscious. Your mate is tapping her foot and you're pulling your hair out.
Sterling Ball of BigPoppaSmokers.com, a major retailer of grills and smokers and a successful competition cook says that "no matter what I tell customers, when the stall hits them, they are horrified. It seems to last forever. They crank up the heat. They bring the meat indoors and put it in the oven. They call me at all hours."
What the heck is happening?
Many pitmasters have long believed that the stall was caused by a protein called collagen in the meat being combining with water and converting to flavorful and slippery textured gelatin. Called a "phase change" the conversion of collagen starts happening at about 160°F, right about the same time as the stall. Others have speculated that the stall was the fat rendering, the process of lipids turning liquid. Still others thought it was caused by protein denaturing, the process of the long chain molecules breaking apart (for more about these processes see my article on meat science). To be sure all of these complex processes use energy in the form of heat, but the question is can they stop the temperature from rising for hours?
Turns out it they cannot. The stall is much simpler, and there is a cure if you want it.

Dr. Blonder to the rescue

Dr. Greg Blonder, is a physicist, entrepreneur, former Chief Technical Advisor at AT&T's legendary Bell Labs, food lover, and theAmazingRibs.com science advisor and mythbuster. He set out to figure out what causes the stall. His answer: "The stall is evaporative cooling."
the barbecue stallIt's that simple. The meat is sweating, and the moisture evaporates and cools the meat just like sweat cools you after cutting the lawn. Here's how he proved it.
He charted a cook of a brisket on a thermostatically controlled smoker. In his test (see the chart above) you can see the stall starts after about two to three hours of cooking when the internal temp of the meat hits about 150°F and then lasts about six hours before the temp begins rising again. Your graph may vary depending on the type of meat, its size, and your cooker, but the curve should be similar.
Next he did some calculations and determined that the amount of energy required to melt the collagen would be far less that that consumed during the stall. A pork shoulder is about 65% water, 15% fat, 8% protein, and 2% sugars and minerals. About 1/4 of the protein, about 2% of the meat, is collagen.
Here's the logic: The fuel in your cooker (oxygen plus charcoal, gas, or pellets) burns and produces energy that enters the cooking chamber in the form of heat. Some of it escapes through the metal sides and some goes up the chimneys, but some is absorbed by the cold meat. When the meat heats, some of the energy is used up raising the temp of the entire hunk, some of it is used in changing the chemistry and physical structure of the molecules in the meat, and some is used to melt fat and evaporate moisture. Pork shoulders and brisket have relatively high connective tissue content. These connective tissues form a sheath around muscle cells that connect them to each other, it encloses bunches of muscles into fibers, it encases fibers into whole muscles, and it connects muscles to bone in the form of tendons and ligaments. Some are made of really tough stuff called elastin. But some are made of collagen. But the math didn't add up. There's just not enough collagen to suck up all the energy necessary to prevent the meat from increasing in temp. So it had to be something else, and his final test proved it.
Hypothesizing that the stall might be evaporative cooling, but still wondering if it may be fat melting, Blonder took a lump of pure beef fat from the fridge, inserted a thermometer probe, and placed it in a thermostatically controlled smoker. He also soaked a large cellulose sponge in water, shook it out, inserted a probe and placed it next to the fat. Then he set the smoker for 225°F.
The results are pretty clear. The sponge is the red line and the fat is the blue line. The fat did not have a stall at all. It slowly and steady heated on a nice gradual curve. But brother, did the sponge ever stall. It climbed at about the same rate as the fat for the first hour to about 140°F, and then it put on the breaks. In fact, it even went down in temp! When it dried out after more than 4 hours, it took off again.
smoker with stall testchart of bbq stall experiment
The conclusion was inescapable: "Since there was a deep, glistening pool of melted fat in the smoker, the rendering fat hypothesis is busted. The barbecue stall is a simple consequence of evaporative cooling by the meat's own moisture slowly released over hours from within it's pores and cells. As the temperature of cold meat rises, the evaporation rate increases until the cooling effect balances the heat input. Then it stalls, until the last drop of available moisture is gone."

Your stall may vary

The onset of stall may vary from 150 to 170°F depending on the particular piece of meat (size, shape, surface texture, moisture content, injection, rub), and cooker (gas, charcoal, logs, pellets, airflow, water pan and humidity), not to mention the accuracy of your thermometer. The higher the cooking temp, the shorter the stall, and in some cases, as you approach 300F, there may be no stall at all. Humidity is a major factor. And the actual temp varies because the stall is caused by surface action and your thermometer is buried well beneath the surface.
Blonder has done experiments that prove that the more airflow in the oven the lower the stall temp so the amount of draft in your smoker will impact the process. For example, pellet smokers, which have a fan in them, create a convection environment and that speeds the evaporation, so the stall can be shorter. And some electric smokers are so tight and humid, there may be no stall at all. Alas, there also may be no bark. A workaround that will help with bark on an electric is to cook without the water pan and crank up the heat near the end.
The stall seems to take all the moisture out from the surface and just below it, and this is clearly part of the formation of the crusty, jerky like, spice laden "bark" on the surface that contributes to the textural and flavor profile. Why doesn't the meat just stay in the stall until it is all dried out? "Much of the moisture in meat is tied up and bound to other molecules like the collagen, fat, and protein. The supply of moisture that can evaporate is limited. Once the meat's ability to supply moisture peaks, it gradually starts to heat up."
Anyone who cooks large cuts knows that it is common for them to lose as much as 25% of their weight during cooking. Well if you've ever collected the drippings, you know that the melting fat is nowhere near 25%. The loss is mostly moisture. Considering that meats are 60 to 70% water, that means there is still plenty of water left behind after breaking out of the stall.
Will basting the meat, injecting, or putting a water pan in the smoker impact the stall? "There is no question extra humidity will slow down the cooking process, whether it comes from a water pan or wet mop." When we baste, whether by mopping, brushing, or spritzing, we cool the meat just by the fact that the liquid is cool. It then sits on the surface and evaporates prolonging the stall. When we put a water pan in the cooker, the moisture evaporates from the surface and raises the humidity in the cooker, slowing the evaporation from the meat, and slowing the cooking. "In low and slow cooking this allows the meat's interior to catch up with the surface temperature" explains Blonder.
Until now I had always believed that water pans were important to keep the cooking chamber high humidity and thereby reduce moisture loss from the meat. Apparently it does this somewhat, but they also cause the cook to take longer. But this is no reason to stop using water pans because the moisture in the atmosphere inside the cooking chamber mixes with the smoke, influences flavor, and lets the meat's interior catch up with the exterior so it cooks more uniformly. Water pans also help stabilize the temp in a charcoal fire because it heats and cools slowly and this tends to even out spikes and valleys in a cooker.
Apparently the stall is not unique to barbecue. Blonder has proven it can happen in baked goods. He points out that when we put ice cubes in a pan and turn on the heat, the ice remains 32°F and the water from the melting ice remains close to 32°F until all the ice is melted. This is a form of stall. Then the water in the pan rises to 212°F, the boiling point, and stalls there until the water is all gone, regardless of how much energy you apply to the pan. Same phenomenon.
barbecue stall water bath
Interestingly, meat won't stall at high temps. Stalling is primarily a phenomenon of low temp cooking. Blonder discovered this by putting a bowl of water in an oven and set the thermostat for 125°F. The water stalled at about 115°F. Then he put another bowl in at 175°F. It stalled at 140°F. He repeated the experiment in 50°F intervals. With each step, the stall temp rose until it slowly approached the boiling point, 212°F, with the oven just over 425°F. The bowl of water he cooked at 225°F stalled at 160°F. Well 225°F is the same temp of the oven in his other experiments, not to mention the temp favored by most barbecue cooks, and 160°F is pretty close to the stall temp for meat. That's the red line in the chart at right.
When I showed this research to Ball he roared "I love it. It debunks the urban legend that it is the collagen or fat melting. And it makes great sense. This explains a lot! I can use this info!"

Beat the stall and retain more moisture with the Texas Crutch

How can we use this info? As you can see from the last chart, one way to beat the stall and retain more moisture would be to cook at a higher temp, and the fact is that more and more competition cooks are doing just that. They figured it out by trial and error. Many now roast pork shoulder in the 250°F range, and others are baking brisket north of 300°F.
There is a better way to prevent the stall, speed up cooking, and retain moisture. For years, competition cooks have employed a trick called the Texas crutch. The crutch is an old method of wrapping the meat with aluminum foil and adding a splash of liquid like apple juice or beer. It is popular on the competition circuit. The conventional wisdom was that the moisture created a bit of steam that tenderized the meat, and since steam conducts heat faster than air, it speeds cooking. Typically they do the wrapping when the meat hit 170°F or so, deep into the stall.
Blonder says that there is no evaporative cooling inside the foil at 225°F. Foil prevents evaporation and over a period of hours the temperature inside the foil slowly approaches a low simmer. Any moisture that comes out of the meat just pools in the foil along with the liquid the cook adds. "It's like running a marathon in a rain coat. You'll sweat, but it won't cool you off." There is a fog inside the foil, but no steam cooking. But there is a form of braising! Braising is a wet method of cooking similar to stewing or poaching but the food is usually not submerged as they are in those methods. It is more like what happens in a slow cooker.
For his final test, Blonder took a six pound pork butt and divided it in two removing the bone. He rubbed them both with a standard pork rub and put them into a 230°F cooker until the stall began. Then he wrapped one in foil and added 1 tablespoon of water. In the chart at right, it is the blue line, labeled "Rub/foil".
The other piece of meat he left alone, naked except the rub, the red line labeled "Rub". As you can see the wrapped pork climbed to 180°F in about half the time, in about six hours. He let it go to 190°F, a target I recommend, removed the foil and put it back on to firm up the bark. As you can see, the temp dropped immediately after unwrapping as the moisture evaporated and cooled the meat. After four hours the unwrapped butt had still not passed 180°F. The lines end when he got hungry and when the foiled/unfoiled butt hit the same temp as the never foiled butt. He called the foiled butt "Really juicy and nearly perfect." But "When the other hit 180°F the meat was still slightly tough. It needed another hour or so to finish cooking in kitchen oven."
pork cooke to test barbecue stall
At right are photos of the two pieces of pork. Pretty comparable.
If the stall was caused by conversion of collagen to gelatin, since the transition happens within the foil and there is no stall, the phase change of collagen cannot be the cause. The fact that collagen melts at about the same temp as the stall is a coincidence, not the cause of the stall.
It is important to remember that once you remove the meat from the foil, the temp will drop because the moist surface begins evaporating almost immediately, so it is important to take your meat up to target, about 203°F before you unwrap because it could drop to as low as 175°F after unwrapping.

Meathead recommends

Based on Blonder's data, you may want to wrap pork shoulders and beef briskets in heavy duty foil at about 150 to 160°F, after about two to four hours in the smoke. By then it has absorbed as much smoke as is needed. If you wrap it then, the meat powers right through the stall on a steady curve and takes much less time. It also retains more juice.
Ball says that he is now following a similar protocol in competition. He won't say what temp he cooks at on his MAK pellet smoker, but he is now foiling when his bark is the deep mahogany color he wants, usually somewhere between 140 and 150°F. He leaves it in the foil all the way up to 190 to 200°F (he wouldn't say the exact number), takes it out of the cooker, lets it come down in temp to about 175°F so it stops cooking, and then wraps it in a towel and puts it in an insulated holding box called a cambro for an hour or two to rest (see my article on how you can rig a faux cambro).
There is a problem with the Texas crutch for some cooks: The meat does not have a hard chewy bark on the exterior. Ball believes that a hard bark is emblematic of overcooked meat. He wants a dark, flavorful, tender bark. That may be the trend in competitions, but a lot of us love those crunchy shards for flavor (I do). If you want a hard bark, the solution is to pull the meat out of the foil when it hits 190°F or so, and hit it with higher heat to dry the exterior and darken the rub.Or just skip the foil altogether, do things the old fashioned tried and true way, and just be patient. Either way, the results are superb.
If you change the way you cook based on Blonder's work, let us know how you liked the outcome. Click here to go to Blonder's website for more details on his experiments with the stall.

Thursday, July 16, 2015

Net Tricks

Like the title said, net tricks.

Fry Them Chickens Up

The Food Lab: The Best Southern Fried Chicken

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The ultimate fried chicken. [Photographs: J. Kenji Lopez-Alt]

MORE:

More Fried Chicken
Digging into the cluckin' awesome world of our favorite fried food.
My publishers over at W.W. Norton were kind enough to let me share one of the new recipes from my upcoming book, The Food Lab: Better Home Cooking Through Science with you guys here, which is good news because I've been DYING to share my Southern Fried Chicken recipe with you.
Here is the section and recipe from the book, in near-complete form. In the book, you'll also find a few extras, like instructions on how to double-fry your leftover chicken for even more crunch, a gallery of the more than 50 whole chickens I fried in the process of writing this recipe, and a do-it-yourself experiment that shows you the pros and cons of resting your chicken after dredging it in flour and before frying it. I hope you enjoy it. (And look out for my book in stores on September 21st, or preorder it through the link below to be the first kid on your block to get a copy!)

Southern-Style Fried Chicken

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I know how passionate people can get about fried chicken, and I'm not one to tell you who makes the best, but if you were to ask Ed Levine, the Serious Eats overlord, he'd tell you that it's Gus's, a sixty-seven-year-old institution in Mason, Tennessee. They serve fried chicken that he describes as incredibly crunchy, with a crisp, craggy crust, juicy meat, and a "cosmic oneness" between the breading and the skin. We're talking fried chicken so good that you have to resort to metaphysics to make sense of it.
For me, as a kid growing up in New York, fried chicken came from one place, and one place only: those grease-stained cardboard buckets peddled by the Colonel himself. To my young mind, KFC's extra-crispy was about as good as it got. I distinctly remember eating it: picking the coating off in big, fat chunks; tasting the spicy, salty grease; and shredding the meat underneath with my fingers and delivering it to my waiting mouth. It was heavenly.
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But times have changed, and as is often the case, revisiting those fond childhood memories results only in disappointment and disillusionment. All over the country, there's a fried chicken and soul food renaissance going on. Even the fanciest restaurants in New York are adding it to their menus. My eyes and my taste buds have been opened to what fried chicken truly can be. I may still dig the ultracrunchy, well-spiced crust that KFC puts on its birds, but that's about the only thing it has going for it. Flaccid skin, dry and stringy breast meat, and chicken that tastes like, well, it's hard to tell if it really tastes like anything once you get rid of the crust.
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Even the breast meat should be juicy in good fried chicken.
That said, stylistically, it can't be faulted. So I figured that I could somehow manage to take what the Colonel started and bring it to its ultimate conclusion—that is, deep chicken flavor; a flab-free skin; juicy, tender meat; and crisp, spicy coating—I might just be able to recapture those first fleeting childhood tastes of fried chicken as I remembered them.

Inside Out

I started with a working recipe of chicken pieces simply dipped in buttermilk and tossed in flour seasoned with salt and black pepper, then fried in peanut oil at 325°F until cooked through. A few problems immediately became clear. First off, timing: By the time my chicken was cooked through (that's 150°F in the breasts and 165°F in the legs), the outer crust was a dark brown, bordering on black in spots. Not only that, but it didn't have nearly as much crunch as I wanted. Finally, the meat underneath the crust wasn't completely desiccated, but I wouldn't exactly describe it as moist, not to mention its rather bland flavor. I decided to fix my chicken from the inside out.
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Looks crisp outside, but inside this chicken is dry.
*For those of you squeamish about "undercooked" chicken or who insist that breast meat must be cooked to 165°F to be safe and tasty, please read this discussion on real world food safety, which is quite different from what the U.S. government would have you believe.
The problem is that with fried chicken, the crisp well-seasoned coating is merely a surface treatment. None of that flavor penetrates very deeply. Surely brining and/or marinating should help with that problem? Brining is the process by which a lean meat (most often chicken, turkey, or pork) is submerged in a saltwater solution. As the meat sits, the saltwater will slowly dissolve key muscle proteins—most notably myosin, a protein that acts as a sort of glue, holding muscle fibers together). As the myosin dissolves, three things take place:
  • First, the ability of the meat to hold onto moisture increases. You can imagine meat as a series of long, skinny toothpaste tubes tied together. As you cook the meat, the tubes of toothpaste get squeezed, pushing out valuable juices. Breading will help mitigate this effect to a degree by slowing down the transfer of energy to the meat, but a significant amount of squeezing is still going to occur regardless of how well breaded the chicken is. Myosin is one of the key proteins responsible for this squeezing action, so by dissolving it, you prevent a lot of moisture loss from taking place.
  • Second, brining alters the texture of the meat by allowing dissolved proteins to cross-link with each other. This is the main principle behind sausage making—dissolved proteins can bond with each other, creating a pleasantly bouncy, tender texture. By brining a chicken breast or a pork chop, you're in effect giving it a very light cure—the same process that converts a raw ham into a supple prosciutto.
  • Third, as the brine slowly works its way into the meat, it seasons it beyond just the very surface. An overnight brine will penetrate a few millimeters into the meat, giving you built-in seasoning before you ever get to the breading. Brines also improve juiciness by increasing the muscles' ability to retain moisture. My normal brining for chicken breast is anywhere from 30 minutes to two hours. In this case, however, a much, much longer brining time was necessary in order to completely mitigate the effects of high-temperature frying, delivering a uniquely smooth, juicy texture to the meat.
A full six hours submerged in salt/sugar water produced the beauty below. Weighing the meat confirmed that an overnight-brined-then-fried bird loses about nine percent less moisture than an unbrined bird does and is significantly tastier.
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Unbrined chicken on the left versus brined chicken on the right.
I've experimented with tossing certain animal preparations with a mixture of baking powder and salt a day in advance in order to improve their crispness. The salt acts as a brine, while the baking powder raises the pH of the skin, causing it to brown more efficiently and the thin film of protein-rich liquid around it to form microbubbles that can add crispness. I tried this method on my fried chicken, but it ended up drying the skin out too much, making it tough to get the breading to remain attached down the line.
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Knowing that I'd be soaking my chicken in buttermilk the next day anyway, I wondered if I'd be able to kill two birds with one stone by replacing the water in the brine with buttermilk. Not only did the chicken come out just as moist as with water brine, it was actually significantly more tender as well, due to the tenderizing effects of buttermilk on food (soaking it for more than one night led to chicken that was so tender that it bordered on mush). Finally, hitting the buttermilk with spices helped build flavor right into the surface of the bird. I played around a bit with the mix before arriving at a blend of cayenne pepper and paprika (for their heat and peppery flavor), garlic powder**, a bit of dried oregano, and a healthy slug of freshly ground black pepper. The Colonel may use eleven secret herbs and spices in his chicken recipe, but five was quite enough for me (and both my wife and my doorman heartily concurred).
**Some folks shun garlic powder, saying that it's nothing like real garlic. I agree: garlic powder is nothing like real garlic. But that doesn't mean it doesn't have its culinary uses. It's particularly effective in spice rubs and breadings, where fresh garlic would be difficult to incorporate, due to its texture.

Crust Lust

Next up: add some extra crunch to that crust. I reasoned that there were a few ways to do this. First off, I wanted to increase the crust's thickness. I tried double-dipping my chicken—that is, dredging the brined chicken in flour (seasoned with the same spice blend as my brine), dipping it back into the buttermilk, and then dredging it once more in flour before frying, a method chef Thomas Keller uses for his justifiably famous fried chicken at Ad Hoc. This worked marginally better—that second coat definitely developed more crags than the first coat did. But it also made for an extremely thick breading that had a tendency to fall off the breast because of its heft.***
***You may notice the redness of the center of the chicken. This is not because it is undercooked, but because I cracked the bone when cutting it open, revealing some of the chicken's red marrow. Occasionally bones may snap or crack on their own, or while you are breaking down the chicken, leaving a few red spots inside the chicken even when it is fully cooked. This should not alarm you.
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A double coating of flour creates a thick crust that falls off the chicken.
Much better was to simply add a bit of extra structure to the breading in the form of an egg mixed into the buttermilk.
My crust was certainly thick enough now, but I ran into another problem: rather than crisp and crunchy, it was bordering on tough, almost rock-like in its density. Knowing that gluten—the network of proteins formed when flour meets water—was the most likely culprit, I sought out ways to minimize its formation. First and foremost: cut the protein-rich wheat flour with cornstarch, a pure starch that adds moisture-absorbing capabilities to the breading without adding excess protein. Replacing a quarter of the flour worked well. Adding a couple teaspoons of baking powder to the mix helped bring a bit of air to the mix, forming a crust that was lighter and crisper, with increased surface area (and we all know that more surface area = more crispness, right?).
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Adding buttermilk to the dredge creates the extra-craggy surface on the left.
Finally, I used a trick that a friend, a former employee of the Chick-fil-A Southern fast-food fried-chicken chain had told me about. He'd mentioned that once the chicken was breaded, the later batches always come out better than the earlier ones as bits of the flour mixture clumped together, making for an extra-craggy coat. Adding a couple tablespoons of buttermilk to the breading mix and working it in with my fingertips before dredging the chicken simulated this effect nicely.****
****This method is also employed in Cook's Country magazine's fried chicken recipe.
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The last problem—the coating overcooking long before the chicken is cooked through to the center—was simple to solve. Just fry the chicken until golden brown, then transfer it to a hot oven to finish cooking at a gentler pace. The result is chicken with a deep brown, craggy crust that's shatteringly crisp but not tough and that breaks away to meat that bursts with intensely seasoned juices underneath.
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